What does the motherhood penalty refer to in Pahl's analysis?

• A. Increased earnings due to childcare
• B. Women are paid less because they may take time off to care for children
• C. Men receive penalties for fatherhood
• D. Employers provide extra benefits for mothers

Answer: (B)

The motherhood penalty describes how having children can reduce a woman’s earnings and career prospects because parenting responsibilities lead to time off or reduced hours, and employers may assume mothers will be less available or less committed to long-term career progression. In Pahl’s analysis of how households manage money and labor, this penalty shows up as a wage and advancement disadvantage tied to gendered expectations about caregiving. Mothers are more likely to work part-time or in less demanding roles, which lowers lifetime earnings and limits promotion opportunities, reinforcing gender inequality in the labor market. It isn’t about men or about extra benefits; it’s about how motherhood affects paid work and pay.